Mitochondrion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Two mitochondria from mammalian lung tissue displaying their matrix and membranes as shown by electron microscopy. The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane- bound organelle found in all eukaryotic organisms, although some cells in some organisms may lack them (e. A number of organisms have reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures. Origin of life emerged from cell membrane bioenergetics. At the origin of life the first protocells must have needed a vast amount of. Mitochondria have been described as . Unless specifically stained, they are not visible. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth. For instance, red blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver cells can have more than 2. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 6. 15 distinct types of protein have been identified from cardiac mitochondria. In 1. 90. 4, Friedrich Meves, made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily, Nymphaea alba. Kingsbury, in 1. 91. Warburg and Heinrich Otto Wieland, who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism, disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration. It was not until 1. David Keilin discovered cytochromes, that the respiratory chain was described. In the following years, the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated, although its link to the mitochondria was not known. In 1. 94. 6, he concluded that cytochrome oxidase and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitchondria. Eugene Kennedy and Albert Lehninger discovered in 1. Over time, the fractionation method was further developed, improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated, and other elements of cell respiration were determined to occur in the mitochondria. It also showed a second membrane inside the mitochondria that folded up in ridges dividing up the inner chamber and that the size and shape of the mitochondria varied from cell to cell. The popular term . The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells, capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells; they became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote. Since mitochondria have many features in common with bacteria, the most accredited theory at present is endosymbiosis. This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins, such as those of the respiratory chain. The Co. RR hypothesis proposes that this co- location is required for redox regulation. The Origin Of Membrane Bioenergetics Pdf ViewerThe mitochondrial genome codes for some RNAs of ribosomes, and the 2. RNAs necessary for the translation of messenger RNAs into protein. The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes. The proto- mitochondrion was probably closely related to the Rickettsia. The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage. This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1. However, this is now known to be an artifact of long- branch attraction. Because of this double- membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion. They are: the outer mitochondrial membrane,the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes),the inner mitochondrial membrane,the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), andthe matrix (space within the inner membrane). Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called mitoplasts. Outer membrane. The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, is 6. It has a protein- to- phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1: 1 by weight). It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins. These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5. The outer membrane also contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty acids, oxidation of epinephrine, and the degradation of tryptophan. These enzymes include monoamine oxidase, rotenone- insensitive NADH- cytochrome c- reductase, kynureninehydroxylase and fatty acid Co- A ligase. Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to certain cell death. This is important in the ER- mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria. It is also known as perimitochondrial space. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules, such as ions and sugars, in the intermembrane space is the same as in the cytosol. One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c. The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. This phospholipid was originally discovered in cow hearts in 1. Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex or via Oxa. For typical liver mitochondria, the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as the outer membrane. This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain even more cristae. These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F1 particles or oxysomes. These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane, which can affect overall chemiosmotic function. It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion.
The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, t. RNA, and several copies of the mitochondrial DNAgenome. Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle. A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 1. RNA, 2 r. RNA, and 1. Origin & evolution of. In this situation the evolution of the earliest 'photosynthesis. Eventually the trans-membrane pH gradient was sufficient. Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques, the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re- identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM. Not only has the MAM provided insight into the mechanistic basis underlying such physiological processes as intrinsic apoptosis and the propagation of calcium signaling, but it also favors a more refined view of the mitochondria. Though often seen as static, isolated 'powerhouses' hijacked for cellular metabolism through an ancient endosymbiotic event, the evolution of the MAM underscores the extent to which mitochondria have been integrated into overall cellular physiology, with intimate physical and functional coupling to the endomembrane system. Phospholipid transfer. The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis, such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face. In particular, the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to very- low- density lipoprotein, or VLDL, assembly and secretion. Although reuptake of Ca. ER (concomitant with its release) modulates the intensity of the puffs, thus insulating mitochondria to a certain degree from high Ca. MAM often serves as a firewall that essentially buffers Ca. In particular, the clearance of Ca. MAM allows for spatio- temporal patterning of Ca. Ca. 2+ alters IP3. R activity in a biphasic manner. Sufficient intraorganelle Ca. In yeast, ERMES, a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial- resident membrane proteins, is required for lipid transfer at the MAM and exemplifies this principle. One of its components, for example, is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta- barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer. Other proteins implicated in scaffolding likewise have functions independent of structural tethering at the MAM; for example, ER- resident and mitochondrial- resident mitofusins form heterocomplexes that regulate the number of inter- organelle contact sites, although mitofusins were first identified for their role in fission and fusion events between individual mitochondria. In addition to the matrix pool of grp. ER Ca. 2+ channels VDAC and IP3. R for efficient Ca. MAM. Coupling between these organelles is not simply structural but functional as well and critical for overall cellular physiology and homeostasis. The MAM thus offers a perspective on mitochondria that diverges from the traditional view of this organelle as a static, isolated unit appropriated for its metabolic capacity by the cell. Instead, this mitochondrial- ER interface emphasizes the integration of the mitochondria, the product of an endosymbiotic event, into diverse cellular processes. Organization and distribution. Typical mitochondrial network (green) in two human cells (He. La cells)Mitochondria (and related structures) are found in all eukaryotes (except one. Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type. A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms. Conversely, numerous mitochondria are found in human liver cells, with about 1. The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well. However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP. Energy conversion. A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose: pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol.
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However, you’ll use only five HTML tags maybe ninety- five percent of the time, or more. Let’s begin with one example of an online publishing tool, the Word. Program For Html Coding ColorPress edit box (or post box) where content is entered. It appears on the Add New Post, Edit Post, Add New Page, and Edit Page pages. A Typical Online Pubishing Add/Edit Page. To learn the basic HTML tags, let’s start by describing a typical online publishing tool, Word. Press. The Word. Press edit box has two tabs, Visual and Text: The Visual box is a classic Microsoft Word- like interface that lets people author without knowing HTML or CSS code. The Text tab, in contrast, lets you author content with the ability to add tags and other code by hand if needed. Without the editor converting any of your code the way the Visual tab often does. The difference between the Visual tab and the Text tab is the difference between a car with automatic transmission (Visual tab) and a manual transmission (Text tab). You have more control with a manual transmission but, at times, more complexity to manage. All online publishing tools have the basic elements seen here in the Word. Press edit page, a form to edit content, usually with a tab to edit as you do in Microsoft Word and another tab to edit raw HTML, as well as the ability to add the page title, categories, an excerpt, and publication date. Here is an early version of this page in a Word. Press text box: The Text tab in the Word. Press Editor. As you’ll discover, even the Word. HTML coding for beginners is easy to learn. Show navigation Hide navigation. Kids, Code, and Computer Science Magazine. Kids, Code, and Computer Science. HTML Editor, CSS Editor, Quick start from Templates. The HTML Editor from CoffeeCup Software has it all! And with free support it is the default choice. HTML Quick Lists: A complete list of all tags and attributes, with links to pages about each of them. For an introduction to modern HTML see logical tags & Semantic Markup. Be sure to check out our CSS tutorials and also how. Well organized and easy to understand Web building tutorials with lots of examples of how to use HTML, CSS, JavaScript, SQL, PHP, and XML. Press Text tab does a little code conversion: at the end of each line break, Word. Press automatically adds either a < BR> (break) tag or a < P> (paragraph) tag, depending on whether the line break is a single line or two lines, respectively. So you don’t have to wrap your content chunks in < P> < /P> tags. In the Text tab, hitting the Enter key on your keyboard twice tells Word. Press to do that chore when your content is saved, to wrap each chunk of text in < P> tags when you save and publish content. This automatic tagging also is a feature in other online publishing tools, as a way to save people time spent coding common HTML tags. The Basics of HTMLAside from the five HTML tags, it is useful to know there are two types of HTML tags, single tags and double tags. Double tags use one tag to open the markup and a second to close the markup. For example, < STRONG> this is bold text< /STRONG> is the double tag, STRONG. The first < STRONG> tag marks where the web browser should start to bold the text; the < /STRONG> tag tells the browser where to stop making the text bold. Double tags simply tells the browser where to begin and end marking up text. The close tag is the same as the open tag except for a forward- slash (/) at the start of the second close tag. All tags start and end with angle brackets, < and >. Don’t panic yet. Below you’ll see how all this works in real life. In plain English, your web browser reads the web page, the code and content, as it displays your page. When the browser sees the left angle bracket, it knows some sort of HTML tag is about to appear. The browser then reads the HTML tag, looks for the close tag if appropriate, and displays the bit of content based on markup. If you’re wondering, single HTML tags are one tag with no second close tag. So < BR> tells the web browser to put in a single line break (BR = break, get it?). And < HR> tells the web browser to put in a horizontal rule or line where the HTML tag appears. You’ll almost never have to use the HR or even the BR tag if you author content only. So you can promptly forget these two tags. One other point with HTML tags: upper or lower case? Always use lower case when using HTML tags in your content. In this article, I’ve upper- cased the tags in the content only to make it easier to scan. But my code examples are all lower case, to meet standards. The Five Most Common HTML Tags. To learn HTML coding for beginners, here are the five tags you do want to remember: The paragraph < P> tag. The anchor or link < A> tag. The bold or < STRONG> tag. The italics or < EM> tag. The headings 1- 6 or < H1> , < H2> , < H3> , < H4> , < H5> , < H6> tags. The < P> Tag. This is the most common HTML tag used. This tag is used to divide blocks of text, also known as paragraphs. Ut non nulla magna. Note the open P and close P tag, as described above, opens then closes this double tag set. And how the close P tag is preceded by a forward- slash, < /p>. The < A> Tag. This tag is probably the most complex to remember. However, it’s most often used in one simple way, as a link wrapped around an image or piece of text content. The A or anchor tag includes a couple parameters, or settings, to define the link: The two basic settings work as follows: href tells the link where to go when clicked. In addition to web pages, in very rare cases href= links to an email address, for example, href=”mailto: jane@doe. Clicking a mailto link opens your default email software. Remove this setting if you want to open the link in the same browser. I’ve included this setting only to show the easy way to open links in new browser windows. And here’s the same code as it displays in any web browser: click here. In the example above, notice how the open and close A tags wrap around the text, “click here.” The text easily could be an image. The < STRONG> Tag. This tag bolds any and all content between the open STRONG and close STRONG tags. Here’s an example: And here’s the same code as it displays in any web browser: Gee, this text is bold! Guess what I’ll point out next? The STRONG open and close tags wrap around the text you want bold. And the close STRONG tag has a forward- slash prefix, < /strong>. Notice the pattern with all these tags? This is what makes HTML both easy to memorize and use. The < EM> Tag. To italicize text, use this tag. It works exactly the way the STRONG tag works: And here’s the same code as it displays in any web browser: Amazing, this text is in italics! Presumably you’ve noticed EM tag wraps the content and the forward- slash prefix for the close EM tag? The < H1> to < H6> Tags. This tag, like the A tag, is slightly complicated. Instead of settings like the A tag, however, the complexity lies in how heading tags are used. In a mass of content, heading tags are used to indicate the relationships between chunks of content. Headings also can be used to indicate relationships within a complete web page, navigation and content included. For example, the site name of a website could be tagged with the < H1> tag, to indicate it is the top- most heading and, therefore, all content is subservient to it. The page title would be tagged with the < H2> and sub- headings in the content would be tagged with < H3> through < H6> tags, as appropriate. If heading tags are used only within content on a page, the page title is tagged with the < H1> tag and the < H2> through < H6> tags are used to tag any sub- headings. Here’s an example of using heading tags with only content: Note how the main topic is Fruits (H1) with Bananas, Apples, and Grapes as sub- topics (H2). The Apple sub- topic has its own sub- topics (H3), Granny Smith and Newtown Pippin Apples. An article about fruits might use this heading structure with HTML heading tags to organize content about each sub- topic. You could achieve the same effect in more obscure and complicated ways. However, HTML heading tags are far simpler to use. And here’s the same code as it might display in most web browsers, with H1 coded to be bigger than H2 which is bigger than H3: Bananas. Apples. Granny Smith Apples. Newtown Pippin Apples. Grapes. If you look at this web page, both what you see in the web browser and if you view the source code, you’ll see the page title is bigger and different from the next level of sub- head which is different from the next level of sub- head. Based on experience, I use heading tags for both site navigation and content. But both approaches work equally fine. Bonus: The < IMG> Tag. Every so often, you might need to manually add an image to content in the Text box in an online publishing tool like Word. Press. If you do need (or want) to add an image, or modify an existing image, here’s an example of a basic image tag: The two basic parameters, or settings, work as follows: src calls the web URL where the image resides on a web server. If you copy and paste the src= value into a web browser, in this case, the http: //www. It’s useful for search optimization and makes the image accessible to people with disabilities. You might notice the < IMG> tag is a single tag, not a double like the < P> or < A> tags. That’s why it’s called a bonus tag. Seriously, note how the forward slash used in the typical HTML close tag is used in the image tag above. However, the forward slash appears with a space before the slash followed by the right angle bracket, as shown above. Question: Can You Combine Tags? My son asked this question as he read this article. The answer is absolutely but you must combine HTML tags in a specific way. You nest the tags, one inside the other, like this: And the output will look like this: Amazing, this text is in bold AND italics! See how the EM tags open and close inside the STRONG open and close tags? This nesting rule applies any time you have to combine HTML tags. 5/29/2017 0 Comments Clear Qam Program GuideProvides on-screen program information . Since Channel Master has no repair. It Is nice for air / clear Qam ch,s only. QAM, Quadrature amplitude modulation is widely used in many digital data radio communications and data communications applications. A variety of forms of QAM are. I've got an HVR 2250 set up with all 4 tuners (2 analog and 2 digital clear qam) and I'm having a problem with the program guide data (similar to the issues beezlerob. Hauppauge Computer Works : Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q Product Description. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q brings over- the- air high definition ATSC digital TV plus analog cable TV to your PC or laptop! Watch and record TV, in a window or full screen. Use the Win. TV- Scheduler to record your favorite analog or digital TV shows using high quality MPEG- 2. How to get 'free' HD with a QAM. QAM stands for quadrature amplitude modulation, the format by which digital cable channels are encoded and transmitted via cable television providers. Request for Mediacom Clear Qam channel. I feel that this is needed so that customers with built in clear Qam tuners in their. Play your TV recordings back to your screen any time. Clear QAM digital TV channels are digital cable channels which can be watched on a TV set without requiring a cable TV set top box. Many cable operators transmit the local high definition ATSC channels using clear QAM. Some cable operators transmit additional non- premium TV programs using clear QAM. Clear QAM channels range from standard definition to the highest 1. ATSC high definition digital TV brings you sharper TV with great sound. Watch high definition digital TV at up to 1. PC screen. Win. TV- HVR- 9. Q ’s ATSC digital TV tuner also has automatic identification of channel names plus will record high- definition digital TV programs to your PC’s hard disk in an MPEG- 2 format without losing quality. ATSC digital TV is free- to- air digital TV for North America. ATSC digital TV typically requires an antenna for reception, and is currently broadcast in 2. TV stations. Note: ATSC digital TV is NOT digital cable TV or digital satellite TV. The Win. TV- HVR- 9. Q cannot receive digital satellite TV directly. You can bring TV from your satellite box through the Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q's A/V cable. You’re prepared for the future. If you live in an area where you can’t currently receive ATSC digital TV, the Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q can still be used to watch and record analog TV from cable TV or a TV antenna. But you're prepared for the future! When ATSC digital TV comes to your area, Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q will also receive the new digital TV channels. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q is easy to install. Just plug it into your. PC or laptops’ USB 2. TV antenna (analog cable TV is also supported). In a few minutes you’ll be watching analog or high definition ATSC digital TV on your PC or laptop screen. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q includes a portable digital antenna, so you can receive digital TV while you travel!*Notes: Clear QAM digital cable TV channels are not available on all cable networks. For more information, contact your cable TV provider. To watch clear QAM channels, you should use either the Hauppauge Win. TV v. 6 or v. 7 application or Windows Media Center from Windows 7. The Win. TV- HVR- 9. Q includes a portable ATSC digital terrestrial antenna, which can be used within 1. ATSC transmitter. When used in the home or office, we recommend a roof top antenna for the best ATSC reception. If you are building a Media Center PC, check Microsoft's web site for a list of Media Center certified DVD decoders. The Windows Media Center application is included with Windows 7, Windows XP Media Center, Windows Vista Ultimate and Windows Vista Home Premium editions only. The Hauppauge remote control is not MCE certified and does not replace Media Center remote control. English documentation. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q for ATSC, NTSC and clear QAM TV, with audio video adapter, remote control and portable antenna. English and French documentation for Canada. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q for ATSC, NTSC and clear QAM TV, with audio video adapter, remote control and portable antenna. English and Spanish documentation for Mexico. Included with Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q models 1. Win. TV- HVR- 9. 50. Q USB 2. 0 TV stick with cable TV or ATSC antenna connection. Hauppauge credit card remote control. Audio/video adapter cable. USB extension cable. Portable TV antenna*Installation software and Win. TV v. 7 application on CD- ROMQuick Installation Guide. |
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